CHAPTER IV DREAMS   IV.7 RECENT IDEAS ON DREAMS Some notions on the possible functions of the REM State in the overall context of sleep were discussed in Chapter II. Often though, any psychological significance of the dream is given little consideration. The view is reflected in such recent ideas as that where the dream is seen as a mere by-product of memory organizational processes (Evans & Newman, 1964) or where the dream is said to be produced by the initiation of PGO spikes caused by the release of monoamines at the pontine part of the brain stem (Jouvet, 1967). Other writers however, have continued the long-standing opinion that dreams are of psychological import and have developed their own systems of belief (e.g. Adler, 1958 ; Fromm, 1949 ; Hall, 1953 ; Ullman, 1962). Evans & Newman (1964), treading on the dangerous ground of superficial analogy, proposed that dreams serve as a 'memory filter' rejecting redundant memories and responses-process that must occur in computers from time to time when programs are updated. They point out that human memory traces are adaptive to new situations. Computer programs too are evolved and redundant material is removed 'off-line' so as not to affect on-going processing. Old memories are not erased, they assert, since they may 'come in useful one day', but links between memories are modified in dreams. If the activity is prevented 'breakdowns' can occur. Short re-routing of several items can be reflected in 'non-sensical' dreams whereas modification of lengthy 'programs would result in long 'sensible' dreams. Repeated dreams would result from constant interruptions in the modification process of certain memories. The theory appeared at a time when it seemed that a 'need to dream' existed. That view however has not prevailed and consequently the theory has been left rather high and dry. Jouvet (1975) suggested that dreams are products of cortical stimulation arising from PGO spikes. His ideas are based on extensive neurophysiological studies on cats. He found that PGO spikes occur under the control of a 'pace­maker' in the lateral part of the pontine tegmentum in the region of the nuclei pontis oralis and caudalis (Laurent et al, 1971). Rapid ocular activity in Stage REM sleep is synchronised with PGO spikes. The spikes are seen to occur continuously after pharmacological effect on (using reserpine or para-chlorphenyl-alanine), or lesion of , the raphe nuclei (which results in a decrease of 5-HT). An inhibitory control operates normally to suppress PGO immediately on waking and this appears to be due to the activation of nor-adrenalin neurones. Another observation by Jouvet is that stereotaxic bilateral destruction of the caudal part of the nucleus coeruleus selectively suppresses the powerful motor inhibition of Stage REM. Cats with this lesion evince 'pseudo-hallucinatory behaviour' at REM times (Jouvet, 1975), acting out aggressive and other instinctive behaviours. In Stage REM then , massive muscular inhibition and the raising of sensory thresholds effectively stop any input or output, so most neurons can receive only endogenous information coming from the pons. This process can only occur when the organism is asleep, hence Jouvet states that sleep is the guardian of dreaming (a direct reversal of Freud’s dictum.) He also thinks that the period of sleep following dreaming may be important for the integration of information since a correlation exists between Stage REM duration and the following sleep period (Ursin, 1970). Another observation of Jouvet is that REM sleep appears most in the organism in utero and at birth, so it must play some important maturational function then. Two kinds of processes seem to occur: The first (e.g. maturation of the visual system) appears to possess a critical period and depends upon stimuli from the external milieu. The second process seems to constitute a programmed genetic readout as a function of prior epigenetic events. Here, REM sleep programs or organises the integration of all the complex motor sequences necessary for genetic behaviour (instincts). Jouvet considers this to be the function of REM sleep, under the possible control of PGO activity. In adults, modification due to learning occurs to the neuro-system, however it is at this stage a rather redundant process, as total inhibition of REM can be seen by MAO-inhibitors or alpha-methyl DOPA drugs. Hartmann (1973) suspects that dreaming sleep has a function independent of dreams. These are mere concomitants or indicators of brain processes. Thus, superficial 'condensation' could result from circuit connections being tested or formed - especially in the cortical areas served by ascending catecholamine pathways. Hartmann points out that a single, short stimulation of the cortex can lead to a whole story of events which unfolds over several seconds or minutes (Penfield & Jasper, 1954). From another approach, Hartmann pondered on what is not in the dream. He notes for, instance that emotions are more primitive in dreams and that the dreamer seldom feels fatigued, that free-will is absent (except in lucid-dreams). In addition, emotions change rapidly, attention is limited and reality testing is minimal. Hartmann suggests these systems are 'shunted out' during the repair processes of REM sleep. The lack of a 'continuing sense of self', he states, is the most prominent characteristic of post- lobotomy patients (Robinson & Freeman, 1954) - having of course much cortical disconnection. This situation permits the more primitive 'primary process' activity to be reflected in dreams. The changes in dreams during the course of the night could indicate processes occurring at different levels of the brain. Some major psychological viewpoints on dreams will now be considered. Adler (1958) proposed a theory of dreaming which is not as detailed as Freud’s but presents a very different approach. Mainly, he believed that sleeping and waking thoughts were similar, only there is some relative deficiency in sleep. Therefore he disagreed with Freud that the Un­conscious was important in determining dream thought and that a dichotomy between Consciousness and the Unconscious existed. Sex and aggression do not generally dominate waking thoughts so they would not do so in dreams. However, like Freud, Adler believed that dreams occur when one is troubled by some unresolved problem in waking life. He also recognised the presence in dreams of such mechanisms as condensation, displacement and symbolisation. The symbol he saw not as a disguise but as a simple expression. Adler considered day-residues to be more important than Freud since they represent waking troubles. The dream though, fools the dreamer over the resolution of the problem. Ullman (1962), though, pointed out that this notion is somewhat contrary to Adler’s insistence that the dream and waking thought are similar. His ideas provided groundwork for the later opinions on dreaming of such theorists as Fromm (1951), Hall (1959) and Ullman (1962). Fromm (1951) rejected much of Freud’s dogma. He thought that in sleep our frame of reference changes drastically from waking concern about survival and mastering the environment to an inner world concerned exclusively with ourselves. This contemplative state can also be attained by a waking person by focussing on inner experience. The logic of the dream world is entirely valid for that situation. Symbolic language is employed but in Western culture this comprehension has atrophied. Dreams are therefore remnants of this mode of expression. Fromm believed that in dreams we are no longer exposed to cultural pressures and can therefore become aware of what we really feel and think. Thus, true insights and value-judgements may be experienced in dreams as well as immoral wishes. He saw the 'low' (Freudian) and 'high' (Jungian) aspects of the dream as dogmatic restrictions and thought either side of the dreamer’s character can be expressed. Hall (1953) obtained a total of 10,000 samples of reported dreams from a normal population. The most frequent settings were : part of a building (24%) ; a conveyance (13%) ; a whole building (11%) ; place of recreation (10%) ; street or road (9%) ; shop (4%) ; classroom (4%) ; office or factory (1%) ; miscellaneous (14%). In the first named setting the most common rooms in the dreams were in order the living room, bedroom, kitchen, stairway, and basement. Hall saw the most outstanding feature of these settings was their commonplaceness. Bizarre and unfamiliar settings are seldom dreamed about. However, the settings do not mirror our daily lives since places of work have a lower frequency in dream reports. In addition, recreational settings are higher than in real life. As to the characters appearing in dreams, Hall divided his Subjects into 2 groups. The younger group (18-28) produced 1819 dreams. In 15% of cases only the dreamer was present. In the rest the average number of persons in the dream was 3 including the dreamer. 43% of the characters were strangers, 37% were friends or acquaintances, 19% were family members or relatives and 1% were famous persons. The dreamer’s mother appeared most frequently (34%), then the father (27%), brother (14%) and sister (12%). Men dream twice as often about males than females but women dream equally of both sexes. Also, people generally dream of persons of their own age group. Older persons (30-80) generally showed little difference, but dreamed more of younger persons. Hall generalised by saying that children dream of their parents, and vice versa, and husbands and wives dream of one another. Regarding actions in dreams, Hall found the following frequencies for different categories : walking, running, riding, etc.- 34% ; talking - 11% ; sitting - 7% ; watching - 7% ; socialising - 6% ; playing - 5% ; manual work - 4% ; striving - 4% ; quarrelling and fighting - 3% ; acquiring - 3%. Flying and floating were not observed to be frequent dream activities. Hall summarised these findings by stating that 'dreamers go places more than they do things ; they play more than they work ; the activities are more passive than active.' An analysis of 1320 dreams provided information on the relations between the dreamer and the other characters. Most acts were hostile (388 to 188). Of these, the behaviour was : Murder - 2% ; physical attack - 28% ; denunciation - 27% ; feelings of hostility - 8%. Emotions felt in dreams were : app­rehension - 40% ; anger, happiness and excitement - 18% each ; sadness - 10%. Thus, 64% of emotions were unpleasant and 18% pleasant. Strangely, though most dreamers judged dreams more often pleasant (41%) than unpleasant (23%). Hall could find no special characteristics of coloured dreams. In 3000 dreams, 29% were coloured (31% females, 24% males). Armed with this data from typical ordinary people Hall (1955) propounded his ideas on dreams. He believes dreams can provide self- knowledge and that they may be studied to ascertain what a person thinks about during sleep. The dreamer’s problems and conflicts are experienced in the dream, portrayed like a theatrical pro­duction. On the matter of sex-dreams Hall stated that nocturnal emission shows 'unmistakably' that the dream is sexually motivated. However, this may not be so : Excessive sexual arousal (linked with erection in Stage REM) caused by some physiological instability could perhaps produce an orgasm. The dream content is not always sexual in such dreams and in that case it is not necessarily symbolic. Hall gives 4 rules for understanding dreams. Firstly, that the whole theatrical effect of the dream is a creation of the dreamer’s mind. It provides a picture of subjective reality. Secondly, that nothing appears which the dreamer does not put there. Therefore the dreamer is best able to interpret the dream. Thirdly, that several conceptions of the dreamer’s self, or others, may be revealed. Fourthly, that the dream is an organic unity which needs to be interpreted as a whole. As for symbols in dreams, Hall believes they do not disguise but are merely expressive devices as occur often in waking life (e.g. a lion represents courage). However, his notions generally appear to accept Freudian dogmas such as the Oedipal complex and the omnipresence of sex and aggression in dreams. Essentially he sees the dream as providing information about the dreamer's concept of self, other people, the world, driving forces, and conflicts. Five major conflicts develop in life The child and its relationship with the parents ; the freedom - security conflict of childhood and adolescence ; the inherent bisexuality conflict ; the moral conflict between biological and sociological feelings ; the biological life / death conflict. The dream reveals the person’s feelings on these topics. Ullman (1958, 1962) came forward with his own views on dream consciousness. He agreed with several statements of Adler His criticisms of Freudian theory ; the emphasis on the possible relationship of the dream to the life-style ; his emphasis on the dreamers orientation to the future. Ullman agreed partially about Adler's notion of the use of metaphor in dreams as a device for stirring up feelings regarding an aspect of the current life situation. He believed that the crucial quality of the dream is its capacity for revelation rather than concealment. In modern dream interpretation, dogmatic assertions are being generally abandoned and a mixture of techniques and beliefs are often employed. For example, Faraday (1972, 1974) encourages the recording of a dream diary and a discussion, when awake, between the dreamer and any dream character to determine more about the character (a method employed by the Gestalt therapist Frederick Perls). She states certain rules for dream interpretation : 1. The dream should first be taken literally, as it might be a reminder or warning. 2. It it makes no sense taken that way, the dream should be seen as a metaphor. 3. Recent events trigger the dream. 4. The feelings in the dream are a good guide to the particular problem. Dream themes must be interpreted individually to suit the dreamer's particular life experiences and circumstances. A dream theme can represent different meanings on different occasions.   7. The dream points to something that requires attention. 8. The dream is understood only when it makes sense to the dreamer. 9. If the dream is incorrectly interpreted the dreamer is unimpressed by the interpretation. Faraday appears to particularly seek out puns in dreams. These may take several forms : Verbal (gilt-guilt) ; reversal (filling full-fulfilled) ; visual (baseball game - 'base game') ; proper name, (long johns - Long John Nebel) ; colloquial metaphor (shooting me down) ; literal (bare chest - getting something off one’s chest). Faraday thinks dreams are of 3 basic types : 'Looking outward', providing information about the external world - often triggered by subliminal perceptions; 'through the looking-glass', expressing our subjective attitudes to the external world ; 'looking inward', giving a picture of our feelings concerning our inner world. The dreamer may seek help from the dream itself in an interpretation by asking it to provide a meaning to a previous symbol. Faraday encourages group co-operation in dream analysis, to reduce reliance on the psychotherapist and prevent the therapist’s personal values from being thrust upon the patient. This author would comment that since the various dream interpretation Schools have all claimed to provide the true and only method, and as each can give voluminous testimonials, perhaps the dream in fact is fairly malleable and simply reflects the person’s conscious biases (or the therapist's) regarding dreams. Since there is no physiological need to dream they need not be messages of great psychological import. In addition, the various physiological accompaniments of dreams may not be the result of psychological activity, overt or suppressed. Random changes in physiological arousal might cause psychological effects. Nevertheless, the choice of particular images is surely highly personal to the dreamer and inasmuch their study may be revealing. Therapists assume that some great truth from an all-knowing part of the mind is at the base of the dream and that the dream is the only channel of communication (i.e. It is a special state having unique qualities). This author is reminded of his experience with 'hypnotic dreams' (Hearne, 1973 ). It was found that similar productions could be obtained without 'hypnosis'. This might be true of nocturnal dreams also. Perhaps the person need only relate an imagined dream in the waking state. Thus, despite millennia of dream interpretation, the dream remains essentially a mystery. No one can prove that a partic­ular analysis is the correct one ; no one can scientifically demonstrate that the dream even conveys a previously unrecognised, important, psychological message - although the cases of creativity in dreams indicate the presence of some complex mental activity during that state. CHAPTER IV DREAMS IV.8 CREATIVITY AND DREAMS Creative people are said to have more imaginative dreams. Adelson (1957) reported that 8 College girls in a creative-writing course had far more exotic dreams than 7 'uninventive' subjects. Similarly, Schechter et al (1965) administered creativity tests to 105 students who also kept a dream diary. The Arts students, and significantly more recall of dreams than Science students, and a significant positive correlation was found between dream imaginativeness and creativity test scores. Numerous important artistic works and scientific discoveries have emerged from the dream state. Neils Bohr's dream of a solidified sun with its planets gave him the conceptualisation of the atomic model (Krippner & Hughes, 1970). The Nobel prize-winning pharmacologist Otto Loewi discovered that nerves affect the heart-beat via an intermediary chemical, after a dream suggested the experiment. He wrote the dream down but could not decipher it in the morning. That night, the dream recurred and he performed the experiment on waking. Cannon (the neurologist), Galen (the physician), Louis Agassiz (the naturalist), all reported scientific discoveries in dreams. Elias Howe, the inventor of the sewing machine, experienced a dream in which natives were throwing spears at him. He noticed that the spears had eye-shaped holes near the tip. He woke and realised that at once that the dream had solved the problem of where to place the eye of the needle in the sewing machine. The chemist Kékulé thought of the ring structure of the benzene molecule after seeing, in a dream, a snake with its tail in its mouth. He later told a scientific gathering that 'Gentlemen, we should learn to dream'. The mathematicians Condorcet and Carden, and the philosphers Al-Mamun and Synesius all had insights in dreams (Krippner & Hughes, 1970). Among artistic creations, several composers (eg Mozart, Schumann, Saint-Saens, d'Indy) reported that themes had been obtained from dreams. Tartini dreamed that the devil played a sonata, but the composer, on waking, could only remember the trill. R.L. Stevenson was able to dream whole stories and even return to them if the end was unsatisfactory. His 'Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde' was the result of a dream where a pursued criminal drank a potion which altered his appearance. These cases strongly indicate that dreams have great potential in improving the quality of life of mankind. Having given a general account of Man's historical fascination in dreams and some of the theories which have been proposed to explain them, the next Chapter deals with a particular type of dream - the study of which has been greatly neglected. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.1 THE PHENOMENON There exists a type of nocturnal dream which is not experienced universally and then not usually frequently even in those who do report the phenomenon. It may be described and defined as a dream in which the dreamer becomes aware that the perceived situation is in fact a dream. i.e. one has insight whilst asleep and dreaming, that one is dreaming. The condition is not usually developed by the dreamer in the form of dream-control, and probably it is typically considered as an interesting trifle. The label ‘lucid-dream’ has been attached to the phenomenon indicating the presence of lucid thought. At this present time most people and even most psychologists are ignorant of the term ‘lucid-dream’ and because of individual experiential differences probably some would deny that such a concept is possible. Others might refute their validity on philosophical grounds (see Chapter VI). During the course of this research the author exper­ienced his first lucid-dream. It was a most memorable event and the following account suitably exemplifies the dawning of critical awareness within the dream : 'I was wandering along on some rocks by the sea-side somewhere. I seemed to think it was by the Mediterranean. People were around and I could hear them talking happily and playing games. I looked down at the sea and noticed it was clear and deep. I moved on and again looked down at the sea. It was shallow here and I thought I could make out some old pieces of metal in the water. This interested me. Next, the sea had gone and I was on the beach digging a small hole which seemed to enlarge automatically. I was then reclining on the sand feeling into the hole and picking out old green-tarnished coins. The visual detail was very good. Suddenly I realised that this was a wish-fulfilment situation (finding money) that I had often experienced before in dreams. I said aloud ‘This is a lucid-dream’. I stood up and looked around me. It was an incredible experience - a wonderful dawning of consciousness. It was a beautiful sea-side scene. The colours were much deeper than normal and the layout was a bit odd. Perspective did not seem to be accurate. There were a few people around, swimming, etc. I noticed a tight feeling round my eyes at first. I considered making the 8 eye-movement EOG signals* as practise but did not do so as there would not be any evidence I had made them.' * An experimental technique described in Chapter VII. A strong association between the easy acquisition of precious coins in dreams and the concept of wish-fulfilment had been established in the author’s mind by several previous post-hoc analyses of coin finding situations in dreams, The example given was the first time that the perception of coins 'triggered' lucidity (It has occurred again since on a few occasions). Sometimes lucidity is attained for no apparent reason. The moment of realisation in a dream of subject A.W. exemplifies this : 'It was just an ordinary day - it could have been morning or afternoon. I was just walking along the footpath. I wasn’t really doing anything particularly. I mean, there was no situation really apart from that. There's no reason I became lucid I know of.' In a survey of University students Green (1966) found that 73% of the sample answered ‘Yes’ to the simple question : 'Have you ever had a dream in which you were aware that you were dreaming ?' (70/95 males, 14/15 females). The male / female difference was not statistically significant. The figures may be exaggerated though due to an acquiescence response (Cronbach, 1942 ; Wiggins, 1962) in persons faced with answering a question concerning a novel concept. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.2 THE POTENTIAL IMPORTANCE OF LUCID-DREAMS In the past, the importance or even the existence of lucid-dreams was not appreciated, perhaps because they are not universally experienced. In addition, no collation of accounts existed and so the phenomenon was not adequately labelled or categorised. However, enough is known about these dreams now to appreciate that they could be a very useful tool for studying not only dreams but other psychological processes such as memory and external perceptions. Since the subject is apparently aware of the real situation of being conscious yet in a dream environment, various experimentations can be undertaken, as the habitual lucid-dream writers have indicated. Experiments could be of 2 types. Where the subject performs some predetermined task and observes the result. The observations could concern : (a) deliberate manipulation of dream events. A study of what can and cannot be done in dreams might prove interesting psycho­logically. How is the lucid-dream logic different from reality, and why ? Does the lucid-dream represent an earlier stage in the development of homo-sapien’s psyche ? (i.e. a 'fossil' conscious­ness ?). (b) observations of external stimulations i.e. perceptions of stimuli of any sensory modality to see whether and how modifications occur in incorporation. Where the Subject performs tasks or responds to instructions given when dreaming - providing input of verbal material is feasible. Thus, the intelligence, personality, memory, thinking, of the lucid-dreamer could be tested whilst in the dream state. For instance, discrepancies concerning recall could throw light on memory consolidation and storage. Jung's idea that the dreamer's personality is the opposite to the waking form might also be tested. Another type of study could involve instructing the lucid-dreamer to perform specific actions in the dream to determine the consequences. These and many other experiments could provide a clearer picture of the mind of the dreamer and the nature of dreams. In all these cases the output of information from the subject would be assumed to be by verbal report on waking. However, if a system of 2-way communication could be devised, the subject could report simultaneously with the dream event. At a very basic level too, the fact that dreams really do occur in REM sleep could be shown if the subject could signal from a lucid-dream and that dream was demonstrably in Stage REM sleep. Other factors which could be established are : whether lucidity persists, whether the temporal order of events in the waking report corresponds to the signalled information, whether there is repression or amnesia concerning signalled matter. From the data obtained from such studies a new theory of dreams, free from meta-psychological speculations, would surely be forthcoming. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.3 CHARACTERISTICS OF LUCID-DREAMS Green (1968) collated questionnaire data and lucid-dream reports, and described the various characteristics of these dreams. These are to be re-stated and commented on. 1. THE TRANSITIONAL STAGE Lucidity becomes established at a crucial transitional stage in the ordinary dream, however sometimes the dreamer may debate whether or not the experience is a dream only to conclude, falsely, that it is reality. This error, which may perhaps be due to inadequate critical observation and thought, and / or exceptional verisimilitude of the dream-scenery, prevents the generation of lucidity. Green labels this transitional stage a 'pre-lucid-dream', however that term, because it includes the word dream, is probably best used to describe the whole of the ordinary-dream matrix, of that REMP, preceding lucidity. The phenomenon of lucidity-rejection in the transitional stage is somewhat similar to a false-awakening (page 113) after lucidity. In both cases the actual state is not appreciated by the dreamer. The main subject in this research (A.W.) when in the transitional stage, habitually tests whether it is a dream or not by attempting to fly or float. If he succeeds he knows he is asleep. 2. THE ONSET OF LUCIDITY Green categorised those dream events coinciding with the onset of lucidity. She listed 4 basic processes : Emotional stress within the dream. This was the most frequent apparent cause of lucidity in naive subjects. Usually the awareness appeared in a nightmare so enabling the subject to wake up. The sense of familiarity in recurring nightmares apparently sometimes triggers lucidity. Green regards this type of lucid-dream as rudimentary. Recognition of incongruity. Often, the observation of some glaring out-of-place aspect of the dream may be linked with the start of lucidity. For example, van Eeden (1913) remarks on an observation by Prof. Ernst Mach that on one occasion he (Mach) knew he was dreaming because he saw the movement of some twigs to be defective. c. Lucidity arising from the initiation of analytical thought. Here, lucidity is achieved after dream events lead to intellectual thought about the situation. As examples, see this author's account on page , and the following report from A.W. : 'When I was running down this path I got caught up with some kind of prickly bush. I knew I was dreaming because when I got caught up first of all I started trying to untangle myself and I thought 'This is one of those stupid things , you get caught up in some irrelevant business and you can’t get on with the main thing.' (Taped report) The distinction between items b and c is surely often very difficult to decide upon, so perhaps this separation is not wholly justified. Recognition of the dreamlike quality of the experience. Green cites a Subject whose poor visual acuity in a dream apparently led to lucidity. She also sensibly points out that the correlation between a report of, say, incongruity and the initiation of lucidity does not necessarily prove a cause and effect connection. This author considers that such a rigid classificatory system is premature and perhaps undesirable. If the establishment of lucidity is essentially caused, say, by physiological stimulation of the cortex, parallel dream events may not be linked and any such attempts by the dreamer would be rationalisations. 3. LUCIDITY STARTING FROM A WAKING STAGE Green is apparently prepared to include under the term 'lucid-dream' visual / imaginal phenomena of the waking state. In one type the subject deliberately attempts to enter a lucid-dream whilst falling asleep. Ouspensky (1960) is cited as the only person who practised this in a 'half-dream' state. He found it easier to observe them though in the morning. This author opines that the falling-asleep 'lucid-dreams' were dreamlets. It is possible to surface lightly and re-enter REM in the later REMPS. Another point is that if the Subject experienced vivid visual imagery, these dreams could have been examples of unusual hypnagogic and hypnopompic imagery. Up to now no electro-physiological evidence has been able to determine whether lucid-dreams occur in REM sleep and are therefore genuine dreams, or are a form of visual imagery occurring in Stage 1 sleep or even when awake. 4. FLYING AND LUCID-DREAMS According to Green, the activity of flying is characteristic of lucid-dreams. Most of the writers of collected accounts of their lucid-dreams mention flying - presumably it is a spontaneously - present dream-skill. The term 'flying' covers many variations in technique. It can include flight by making swimming-type movements, floating, zooming like a rocket, or gliding along just above ground level. When the subject is flying in an ordinary dream the action can sometimes coincide with lucidity - perhaps by psychological association with previous occasions where flying and lucidity were co-temporaneous. It is interesting to consider why the unreal activity of flying is possible in lucid-dreams. Two different considerations occur to this author. Firstly, it could be that in a lucid-dream primitive areas of the brain are prominent in activity and that the organism in effect reverts to an earlier evolutionary stage. Piscean or amphibian stages in the development of man could thus be expressed - flying being a representation of swimming*. Alternatively, a lack of muscular feedback with perhaps imaged positive feedback could permit such activity. A control-centre might send signals which are intended to reach the appropriate muscles. These are however inhibited by the natural atonia of REM sleep. Since the muscles are not operated no signals of effect return and in their absence imaginal positive feedback could pre­sumably occur. Hence, any physical activity is theoretically likely in lucid-dreams - so long perhaps that an overriding psych­ological assertion in the Subject of impossibility is not present. Subjects have certainly reported, for instance, an ability to pull a finger off and replace it, or to walk through a wall. * Ellis (1899) attributes such an idea to Stanley Hall. Van Eeden (1913) wrote, on flying : 'Flying or floating … is generally an indication that lucid dreams are coming. When I have been flying in my dreams for two or three nights, then I know that a lucid dream is at hand. And the lucid dream itself is often initiated and accompanied all the time by the sensation of flying. Sometimes I feel myself floating swiftly through wide spaces ; once I flew back­wards, and once, dreaming that I was inside a cathedral, I flew upwards, with the immense building and all in it, at great speed.' (Pages 449-450) 5. PHYSICAL REALISM IN LUCID-DREAMS The lucid-dream environment is reported to be similar to that which we term reality, although not in all respects. Van Eeden had the impression of being in a 'fake-world , cleverly imitated, but with small failures' : 'On Sept. 9, 1904, I dreamt that I stood at a table before a window. On the table were diff­erent objects. I was perfectly aware that I was dreaming and I considered what sorts of experiments I could make. I began by trying to break a glass, by beating it with a stone. I put a small tablet of glass on two stones and struck it with another stone. Yet it would not break. Then I took a fine claret-glass from the table and struck it with my fist, with all my might, at the same time reflecting how dangerous it would be to do this in waking life ; yet the glass remained whole. But lo ; when I looked at it again after some time, it was broken. It broke all right, but a little too late, like an actor who misses his cue. This gave me a very curious impression of being in a fake-world, cleverly imitated, but with small failures.' (Page 448) Green states that lucid-dreams are generally realistic in that, say, animals and objects do not become personified or talk, or change identity during the dream. However she also gives examples where physical realism does break down. She considers that the dreamer's attitude may be relevant to this matter. Flying is a common departure from reality in lucid-dreams, and Green also draws attention to tunnel ­travelling representing displacement in space and perhaps time.   6. PSYCHOLOGICAL REALISM IN LUCID-DREAMS Green states that persons who appear in lucid-dreams retain their identity throughout the dream. Persons who are unknown to the dreamer are often compounds composed from memories. The lucid-dream world is also somewhat idealised in that deformed or grotesque persons are seldom seen. She also comment that a specific persons in the dream occasionally does not resemble that person. Often, the dreamer discusses with the hallucinated person the fact that it is a dream. Van Eeden wrote : '… I saw Prof. Van't Hoff, the famous Dutch chemist, whom I had known as a student, standing in a sort of college-room, surrounded by a number of learned people. I went up to him, knowing very well that he was dead, and continued my inquiry about our condition after death. It was a long, quiet conversation, in which I was perfectly aware of the situation. I asked first why we, lacking our organs of sense, could arrive at any certainty that the person to whom we were talking was really that person and not a sub­jective illusion. Then van't Hoff said : ‘Just as in common life ; by a general impression.' 'Yet', I said, 'in common life there is a stability of observation and there is consolidation by repeated observation.' 'Here also', said van't Hoff , 'And the sensation of certainty is the same.' (Pages 450-451)   7. PERCEPTUAL TEXTURE IN LUCID-DREAMS The visual detail of lucid-dreams appears to vary within and between dreams although Green believes that complete realism seems to be the rule with habitual lucid-dreamers. The range of quality may be illustrated by the following 2 instances : F. Myers (1887) : 'I was, I thought, standing in my study; but I observed that the furniture had not its usual distinct­ness - that everything was blurred and somehow evaded a direct gaze. It struck me that this must be because I was dreaming. This was a great delight to me, as giving the opportunity of experimentation.' (Pages 241-242) Subject A.W. 'In this lucid-dream, a scene-shift occurred. I was among all these suburban houses and so on and I was reading numbers on the gates and then it ran into a scene like the seaside, where there were little shops selling the usual seaside stuff - postcards, buckets, etc. And I was looking around on anything that might have a number on it - bits of advertising and so on.' One interesting difficulty reported by some subjects is an inability to focus on reading printed or written material. Oliver Fox wrote : 'In a dream of Knowledge reading is a very difficult matter. The print seems clear enough until one tries to read it ; then the letters become blurred, or run together, or fade away, or change to others. Each line, or in some cases each word, must be held by an effort of will until its meaning has been firmly grasped ; then it is re­leased - on which it becomes blotted out or changed - and the next held in its turn and so on. Other people have told me that they find the same difficulty in reading dream lit­erature.' Sometimes perceptual detail is extremely good - it must be if subjects cannot decide whether a situation is a dream or reality. Other sensory modalities are represented in lucid-dreams, as these examples show : Auditory and gustatory sensation : (Van Eeden) 'I took the broken glass and threw it out of the window, in order to observe whether I could hear the tinkling. I heard the noise allright and I even saw two dogs run away from it quite naturally. I thought what a good imitation this comedy-world was. Then I saw a decanter 'Well, we can also have voluntary impressions of taste in this dream-world ; this has quite the taste of wine'. Gustatory sensation: (Subject A.W.) 'I pulled a leaf (I think it was a thistle) some sort of fairly fat leaf and tore it in two and tasted it... it tasted sweet and sappy.' (Taped report) Green considers that proprioceptive sensation is implied by the reports of some subjects of being aware of the position of their body.   8. MEMORY OF LUCID-DREAMS Green states that all habitual lucid-dreamers report their memory of the lucid-dream as being clear. However, interest in the phenomenon probably accounts for a better recall.   9. MEMORY IN LUCID-DREAMS Green points out that the ideal way to test memory in lucid-dreams is to test the subject’s responses to certain independent questions. However that is a state of exper­imental development not yet attained. Subjects have certainly remembered tasks or experiments to perform in lucid-dreams. For instance Subject A.W. : 'I looked at my hands and they were definitely unusual. I mean, they weren't my hands. That's what gave me the clue - so it was after that I started doing the experiments. And while I was flying I remembered ( because I thought I was a bit behind schedule you see) to, at least think about listening for words coming in - but presumably you didn't send any.' (Taped report) Van Eeden mentioned the 'nearly complete' recollection of day-life in his dreams : 'In these dreams the reintegration of the psychic functions is so complete that the sleeper remembers day-life and his own condition, reaches a state of perfect awareness, and is able to direct his attention, and to attempt different acts of free volition.' (Page 446) However, some lapses occur : (van Eeden) 'Then I saw my brother sitting - the same who died in 1906 - and I went up to him saying : "Now we are dreaming, both of us." He answered: "No, I am not !" And then I remembered that he was dead.' (Page 450) Green is of the opinion that a hierarchy of memories exists in lucid-dreams : 'General psychological reflections and intentions are most easily remembered, together with generalised information concerning the properties of the physical world.' 'Specific intentions relating to the lucid-dream, and circumstances of fairly long standing concerning his life and circumstance.' 'There appears to be a positive resistance to accurate memories of the most immediate and specific concrete details of the subject’s life.' She states that concrete details of this latter kind are the only inaccurately remembered items in lucid-dreams. If true, this is a potentially interesting observ­ation, as it suggests that in the lucid-dream state those areas of the brain dealing with consolidation and storage of recent memories are divorced from the dream consciousness areas.   10. ANALYTICAL THOUGHT IN LUCID DREAMS From her investigations, Green finds that analytical thought in lucid-dreams is reported not to be faulty - however there is an exception : she states that the relationship be­tween the dream world and real world may be subject to faulty rea­soning, where specific details are concerned. Hervey de Saint-Denys reflected intelligently in his lucid-dreams : 'I even reason as follows : the images which appear to me in this dream are no more imposed upon me than the images which present themselves to my eyes when I am awake. I retain as well as usual my freedom of choice to turn right or left, to direct my eyes in one direction or another, and so on. Indeed, I can summon up certain scenes or produce certain images accordingly as I wish or do not wish to act mentally as a result of what I see... How does the dream differ for me from reality ? I remember, I reason, I will, I do not will : I am not the helpless victim of the hallucination in which I am involved. If my acts of volition are not followed by real efforts, this is only because instead of my physical organs obeying my thought , only an image of this process takes place; but the psychological phenomenon is exactly the same.' (Page 85) Green exemplifies her statement concerning the occasional failure of subjects to realise the independence of dream and actual world in specific matters by quoting Myers : 'I remembered that my wife and children were away at the time (which was true) and I did not reason to the effect that they might be present in a dream, though absent from home in reality.' (Page 242) Green states that a learning effect can operate however in this area, so that improvements in reasoning occur subsequently.   11. EMOTIONAL QUALITY OF LUCID DREAMS The emotional level in lucid-dreams is another variable feature. Green gives an extreme example of Fox : 'I dreamed that I was standing on the pavement outside my home. The sun was rising behind the Roman wall, and the waters of Blethingden Bay were sparkling in the morning light. I could see the tall, trees at the corner of the road and the top of the old grey tower beyond the Forty steps. In the magic of the early sunshine the scene was beautiful enough even then ..... Then the solution flashed upon me : though this glorious summer morning seemed as real as real could be, I was dreaming !' (Pages 32-33) One interesting virtually universal finding is that emotional involvement in a lucid-dream can waken the Subject. Thus, habitual lucid-dreamers try to avoid certain situations in order to prolong the lucid state. Subject A.W. 'We went off a bit into some, well one or two bushes - not enough to conceal what we were doing. I started feeling her up and she said she didn’t want me to, but I carried on and I said "Why do you say not to?" and she said "Because I want you to" - which I thought made a sort of sense and I was thinking ‘Well that’s typical - you’ve got to get them going before they say yes.' She had small breasts. Oh yes, I took her trousers half down ... she had a suede cut and I called her ‘stubble-head’. I was going to ..... even though there were people around ... but then I thought ‘No, you will waken up some part of your brain which will lead to - you’ll wake up.' (Taped report) Green quotes Fox on the suppression of emotion in lucid-dreams : 'It was so difficult to maintain the role of an impersonal observer in this strange Dream World, to realise that if I allowed my emotions to get the better of my mental control the dream would come to an abrupt end. I would enter a restaurant and order a meal, only to wake after sav­ouring the first few mouthfuls. Indeed, to see how much one could eat, without paying attention to taste, would form a good exercise in mental control if only these Dreams of Knowledge were more easily come by ; but, as things are, there are better ways of spending one’s time in the dream, and I do not recommend it. Similarly, I would visit a theatre, but could never stay in the dream more than a few minutes after the curtain had risen, because my growing interest in the play broke down my mental control of the experience. I would encounter a fascin­ating lady and even talk to her for a while, but the mere thought of a possible embrace was fatal.' (Pages 43-44) Green finds that two types of activity in the lucid-dream cause a loss of lucidity : 1. Activities which arouse an emotional conflict, as they are not performed when awake. For example, dangerous, immoral (to the subject) or antisocial behaviour. 2. Activities which lead to a loss of mental control, or an uncritical attitude to events (e.g. the Fox case, above). Green states that a few subjects reportedly experience a type of claustrophobia in that they feel trapped within the dream This can cause fear - which probably wakes the subject.   12. CONTROLLABILITY OF LUCID-DREAMS According to Green, one remarkable characteristic of lucid-dreams is their relative controllability. However, many people who experience them are unaware of this aspect. People report that they can, to varying degrees on different occasions, influence the action and course of events in these dreams. Attempts at control seem to have to be indirect usually, for instance, in desiring to travel to a place it might be necessary to simulate some form of transportation. Occasionally, something causes the subject to wake at this stage. As well as making things happen, another form of control is to keep calm throughout the dream - perhaps by ignoring surrounding events. This form of control is referred to by Whiteman (1961). Subject 'A.W.' in this study considers that this technique prolongs lucidity. Controllability does not appear to be a learned Skill. This author managed to make a girl appear by conscious thought during his first lucid-dream - although the way she entered the dream was not as planned : 'I remembered the controllability aspect of lucid-dreams and thought I would try to make a girl appear and that she should resemble someone I once knew. There was a stack of deck-chairs about 20 feet away. I walked up to them thinking that she would be behind them. As I approached the deck-chairs I remember thinking what a lot of dream-time this action would occupy. I looked round the pile of chairs but there was no girl. I felt disappointed at this inability to control dream content and walked on. Suddenly I noticed a young girl walking towards me. She was short with dark hair - which fitted the required description. I was wondering whether to speak to her when she smiled at me and said 'Hello'. I took her hand and we walked off happily together.' (Page 367) A detailed study of which dream activities can be controlled and to what extent might lead to interesting findings of consistencies between subjects, which could shed new light on the nature of dreams.   13. EXTRA-SENSORY-PERCEPTION AND LUCID-DREAMS Green considers there is evidence for E.S.P. in 'waking-lucid-dreams' and hence expects a similar finding in sleeping-state lucid-dreams. Few writers appear to have made suitable experiments though. Green cites an example of apparent telepathic E.S.P. from 'Subject A.' : 'I became aware that I was dreaming and decided to try to communicate with my son. I had an impr­ession that contact had been achieved and attempted to convey to him the words, ‘I can’t stay long; I am feeling muzzy.’ When I met my son the next day for lunch he repeated these words to me before I had mentioned the matter to him and said that he had received the impression in a dream in which he also was aware that he was dreaming.' (Green 1968, page 110) Van Eeden reported a case of ostensible E.S.P. from a lucid-dream : 'In May, 1903, I dreamed that I was in a little provincial Dutch town and at once encountered my brother-in-law, who had died some time before. I was absol­utely sure that it was he, and I knew that he was dead. He told me that a financial catastrophe was impending for me. Somebody was going to rob me of a sum of 10,000 guilders. I said that I understood him, though after waking up I was utterly puzzled by it and could make nothing of it. I wish to point out that this was the only prediction I ever re­ceived in a lucid-dream in such en impressive way. And it came only too true, with this difference, that the sum I lost was twenty times greater At the time of the dream there seemed not to be the slightest probability of such a catast­rophe. I was not even in possession of the money I lost after­wards. Yet it was just the time when the first events took place - the railway strikes of 1903 - that led up to my financial ruin.' (Page 451) The type of E.S.P. experiment ad­vocated by Green appears to be 'travelling-clairvoyance' where the dreamer goes to a place and ascertains information which can be verified later. Straightforward simultaneous E.S.P. exper­imentation is, at this stage, an impossibility due to the low frequency of lucid-dreams and the fact that it is not feasible as yet to determine when A subject is experiencing a lucid-dream. If that were so a fellow 'receiver' or 'transmitter' of E.S.P. information could be roused to take part in an experiment. The discrete altered state of consciousness which is the lucid-dream, may be accessible to extra-sensory information. Work at the Maimonides laboratory in New York has claimed some support to the concept of telepathy in ordinary dreams (Ullman & Krippner,1969).   14. FALSE AWAKENINGS A false awakening occurs when a person is under the misapprehension that waking has occurred from a dream. The verisimilitude of the dreamer’s bedroom may he so perfect that the subject does not even question whether it is a dream. The state fairly frequently appears after a lucid-dream, although it is present too in ordinary dreams. Indeed a wakefulness-illusion may also occur at other times during the night. Subject A.W. reported : 'I was aware of possible false aw­akenings and I thought 'I'm doing alright' - but then, apparently, I had one because I certainly woke up from one. Possibly the telephone rang because I dreamt that it rang and I was trying to answer it, and I was thinking 'Am I too sleepy to realise what is happening - they're not saying anything because they can tell I’m being stupid' - because I kept saying 'Hello' and they didn't say anything. I thought I’d better record it and the tape-recorder went wrong. The cassette seemed to be half out and it was making a funny whining noise and I couldn’t stop it. I started pulling the batteries out and it was shortly after that I woke up.' (Taped report) Repeated false-awakenings have also been recorded. Green cites Delage who several times one night dreamed he was urgently called to a sick person. Each time he dressed hurriedly, and sponged his face. The feel of water he thought 'woke' him on each occasion, but in the morning there was no evidence that he had left his bed. Green holds the view that there are two types of false awakening : 1. When the Subject is thinking about or relating a previous dream experience. If the subject realises it is still a dream a further lucid-dream results. 2. A rarer category is where the Subject appears to wake, but in an atmosphere of suspense . The effect is supposed to increase in strength over time, or the subject may wake to a 'stormy' atmosphere. Green states that not all lucid-dreamers experience it, and very few unsophisticated Subjects. Fox wrote : 'I passed from unremembered dreams and thought I was awake. It was still night, and my room very dark. Although it seemed to me that I was awake, I felt curiously disinclined to move. The atmos­phere seemed changed, to be in a 'strained' condition. I had a sense of invisible, intangible powers at work, which caused this feeling as of aerial stress. I became expectant. Certainly something was about to happen.' If the state persists apparitions may be observed, or psycho-kinetic phenomena. Fox (1962) found that recognition of this state led to an out-of-the-body experience.   15. LUCID-DREAMS IN 'HYPNOSIS' Green claims that lucid-dreams occur spontaneously in light 'hypnosis' - without direct suggestion. This author seriously doubts that 'hypnotic' lucid-dreams and nocturnal dreams are the same phenomenon. There has been debate in the literature concerning alleged similarities between ordinary nocturnal dreams and 'hypnotic' dreams. Klein (1930), for example, held that there were no differences between the two phenomena since similar types of dream report occurred. Both phenomena were supposed to operate at an unconscious level evincing a manifest and latent dream content (Mazer, 1951). Tart (1964), however, pointed out that experimenter bias and demand characteristics had invalidated many experiments on 'hypnotic' dreams. Also, electro-encephalographical recording was not used. Some 'hypnotic' dreams may have been Stage I sleep dreamlets. Tart concluded, after experimentation, that the two phenomena can be distinguished in several ways. Thus, physiologically, the EEG and basal skin resistance are quite distinct ; no 'dream-work' mechanisms were observed in his study ; some subjects could not dream of the suggested topic at night, but could apparently do so in 'hypnosis'. This author’s own experience with research into 'hypnotic' dreams reinforces the view that the two phenomena are not identical. In a study (Hearne,1973) 'hypnotic' subjects produced dreams which were repeatedly stopped on command after brief running intervals. When stopped the subject 'projected' the image onto a drawing board and traced the outlines of objects as well as describing colours, textures, etc. The end product was, ostensibly, a series of pictures from a 'hypnotic' dream. However, it was later discovered, using several subjects, that the same results could be obtained without prior 'hypnosis'. The important factor was imaging ability (see page 141), not 'hypnosis'. It is interesting to consider that a Control group of simulators might not have produced the same results - due to their poorer imaging ability (Sutcliffe, Perry & Sheehan, 1970). Hence, yet again, a phenomenon peculiar to 'hypnosis' might have been claimed. In another study (Wagstaff, Hearne & Jackson,1978), the finding that the amount of REM sleep was decreased by a 'post-hypnotic' suggestion to dream on any topic (Stoyva,1965a) was duplicated without 'hypnosis' - using mere instructions to subjects. Green’s 'hypnotic' lucid-dreams are surely examples of spontaneous imagery. Demand-characteristics (Orne,1962) could also be influential in the experimental situation.   16. FALSE LUCIDITY Green does not mention a reported 'false lucidity' phenomenon, although van Eeden comments on this. However, he blamed such episodes on 'demoniacal mockery'. Van Eeden wrote : 'In March 1912, I had a very complicated dream, in which I dreamt that Theodore Roosevelt was dead, then that I woke up and told the dream, saying : 'I was not sure in my dream whether he was really dead or still alive ; now I know that he is really dead ; but I was so struck by the news that I lost my memory'. And then came a false lucidity in which I said: 'Now I know that I dream and where I am.' But this was all wrong ; I had no idea of my real condition, and only slowly, after waking up, I realised that it was all non­sense.' (Page 454) False lucidity may perhaps be explained more satisfactorily by the intrusion into an ordinary dream of a virtually automatic thought that the situation is a dream, but that in this rare case the comprehension behind the thought is lacking. It is presumably more common in habitual lucid-dreamers. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.4 WRITERS ON LUCID DREAMS A handful of writers have recorded accounts of their lucid-dreams, collected over several. Years : Hervey de Saint-Denys (1867, 1964), van Eeden (1913), Delage (1919), Fox*(1962), Ouspensky (1960), Whiteman (1961). (*Pseudonym for Hugh G. Calloway) The Marquis Hervey de Saint-Denys kept a diary of his dreams from the age of 13, and noted his observations (with coloured drawings) over some 1900 nights. He experienced consciousness in dreams and was able to exercise control although it was never really absolute. He performed experiments in dreams, an example of which is the following : 'One night, while sleeping, when I felt complete knowledge of my real state and I was rather apathetically watching the passage of the whole phantasmagoria of my sleep which, incidentally, was very clear, the idea occurred to me to take advantage of it, to make some experiments with the power I might or might not have of evoking certain images by the use of my will alone. I tried to evoke (some monstrous apparitions seen in a previous dream). This first attempt met with no success. At this moment the pastoral scene of a countryside gilded by bright sunshine unfolded before me ... I imagined that if, in a dream, I performed the action of putting my hand in front of my eyes, I should obtain a first illusion in relation to what would actually happen if I did the same thing while awake ; that is to say that I would make the images of objects which seemed to be situated in front of me disappear. Then I asked myself whether, once this interruption of pre-existing visions had taken place, my imagination would not find it easier to evoke the new objects on which I was trying to fix my thoughts. The experiment followed this reasoning closely. In my dream I saw a hand in front of my eyes, and this did indeed have as its first effect the destruction of the vision of the countryside. For a moment I remained without seeing anything, as would have happened in real life. Then I made another energetic call to the memory of the famous eruption of monsters and, as if by enchantment, this memory, now clearly placed in the objective of my thoughts, suddenly stood out sharp, brilliant and tumultuous, without my even noticing, before waking, the way in which the transition had taken, place.' (Pages 283-286) Hervey de Saint-Denys was certainly an important pioneer in the discovery to science of lucid-dreams. The term 'lucid-dream' was apparently first employed by van Eeden. Other writers have used different descriptive terms. In a paper read to the Society for Psychical Research that author gave examples of several lucid-dreams out of over 350 he had experienced since 1896. He insisted that they were genuine dreams occuring invariably between 5 and 8 a.m. They were generally pleasant and contained flying or floating frequently. He reported having nearly complete recollection of day-life in the dream and a clear recollection on waking. They were stated to have a very beneficial effect and were allegedly occasionally premonitory. He quotes the German poet Novalis as saying that when we dream we are dreaming, we are near waking up, but he decidely rejects that view. Van Eeden stated firmly that lucid-dreams occur in deep sleep. His approach was sensible, scientific and based on the vast experience of many hundreds of dreams. His testimony appears highly credible and the scientific testing of conditions within lucid-dreams was an important contribution to understanding the phenomenon. Delage experienced only a few lucid-dreams. A characteristic of his was to perform dangerous activities in these dreams in order to observe the consequences. Delage (1919) : 'After various happenings, I find myself at the edge of a frightful precipice, the mere sight of which makes me tremble: a sheer, or even overhanging, cliff many hundred feet high. At the bottom are sometimes sharp rocks, sometimes houses and trees which look small in the distance. At the moment when I tremble : I realise that I am dreaming, that all this is illusory and that I am in no real danger. Then, in order to see what will be the result of this decision, I make up my mind to throw myself into the abyss. I do so and I always arrive at the bottom without a shock unless my fall ends in a delightful flight.' (Page 453) He stated that his 'conscious' dreams were not like ordinary day-dreams in that in the latter type he had full control over the actions. He continued : ' .... in conscious dreams, the awareness of the act that I am dreaming, is the only point of contact with reality. Everything else belongs to the dream which, although more or less directed by my will in certain respects, still contains a very considerable degree of scope for the operation of the unforeseen, independently of my will and controlled by factors outside my consciousness. Everything appears vividly objective and as convincing as the events of real life, in a way which is quite different from the feeble impressions of day-dreams.' (Page 454) (Translated by C. Green, 1968) Fox (1962) used the term 'dreams of knowledge' or 'celestial dreams' to describe lucid-dreams - which he thought occurred when the 'critical faculty' had become aroused. He referred to degrees of realisation and propounded a direct pro­portional link between the dream’s vividness and level of realisation. 'To get the best results I had to know all about the past life of my earthly self, just as one does in waking life, to realise my body was asleep in bed, and to appreciate the extended powers at my command in this seemingly disembodied state.' (Pages 34-35) He maintained that the deliberate prolongation of a lucid-dream led to a different phenomenon termed 'Astral projection' or 'Out-of-the-body state'. Another method of achieving 'astral projection' described by him was to 'sit-up' out of a Type 2 false awakening (V.3.14 ). An important consideration requires to be mentioned here, though. Perhaps the definition (to the Subject at the time) of the experienced state depends on the dream environment. If a Subject becomes lucid when say walking along a road, the natural assumption may be to classify it as a dream. However, if the lucidity occurs in a dream-environment identical to the subject’s bedroom, especially in a false awakening, an 'out-of-the-body' definition may be applied. Fox's reference to catalepsy after 'out-of-the-body' experiences points to the phenomenon occurring in sleep. Ouspensky (1960) made deliberate attempts to produce consciousness in dreams. He maintained that such observations did not alter the essential dream and so was free from what today would be termed 'Experimenter bias' (Rosenthal,1963). His 'lucid-dreams' - if that is what they were - were entered in a 'half-dream' state. His method was to try to continue awareness as he fell asleep. He reported an ability to control these half-dream state phenomena. This author considers it more probable that the experiences were a form of controllable hypnagogic imagery. Whiteman (1961), a mystic, has exper­ienced and categorised some extraordinary altered states of consciousness. To him, the term 'lucid-dream' should be applied only to types denominated a dream at the time, but with minimal insight. Dream experiences where experiments are conducted should then be termed fantasy-separations or full-separations (of con­sciousness from the body) according to the degree of control and insight. This seems unnecessarily complicated though and the boundaries could not be fixed. His claim that states of sep­aration can be entered when awake needs to be studied by electro-­physiological monitoring, as it could be that the assumption of wakefulness is illusory. In addition, one would wish to know the extent of the Subject's own waking imagery ability. Whiteman’s categories may be entirely personal to him, and the strong religious bias does not aid a scientific, rational, evaluation. Faraday (1972) reports that she has experienced a 'lucid high dream' which developed from an ordinary lucid-dream. In the 'high' state she felt great exhilaration as if under the influence of psychedelic drugs : ' .. the most extraordinary feeling came over me. Surges of energy pulsated throughout my body and I entered a 'high' in which I was completely transported on the kind of internal journey only those who have experienced psyche­delic drugs would understand. I could actually feel my body being moved by this energy although I knew perfectly well that I was asleep. In the distance, I could hear the hammering of the builders in the basement, a dog barking in a neighbour’s garden, and the distant sound of traffic. I was filled with an enormous compassion for the whole of mankind for not being able to share my strange and wonderful experience at that moment … ' (Pages 294-5) Tart ( 1969) had found that a class of 'high' ordinary dream can occur in persons who had experienced psychedelic drugs. Faraday however states that she had such a dream before her experiments with drugs. Afterwards, she was able to enter a 'high' condition in a dream by merely wishing she had some LSD. The 'flashback' could be neuro-chemically caused or, perhaps more likely, the mind images a previously experienced pleasurable state. Tart (1975), in attempting to work towards some conceptualisation of states of consciousness, plotted the 2 dimensions of Rationality and Ability to hallucinate, to produce quadrants consisting of : State 1, ordinary consciousness ; State 2, REM dreaming ; State 3, lucid-dreaming. The approach is simplistic though, and could give rise to basic misconceptions about the state of lucid-dreams. In any case, rationality is often good in ordinary dreams and may be poor in lucid dreams. A better dimension would be 'Awareness', but can there really be such a scale ? (FIGURE showing Tart's quadrants here) CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.5 LUCID-DREAMS IN RELATION TO DREAM THEORIES If lucid-dreams are in fact true dreams occurring in Stage REM sleep, as distinct from waking-imagery fantasies, they constitute a difficulty for some dream theories. Freud in fact accepted (in additions to his work 'The Interpretation of Dreams' 1909, 1914, 1930) that some persons can consciously control their dreams. A wish to enjoy the dream might even underlie this ability. Consciousness enters dreams on other occasions when control is lost. I some nightmares the thought occurs 'It is only a dream' as a defence against the realisation of basic unsavoury truths. Jungian theory, and later similar ideas, might interpret the lucid-dream as an indication that the dreamer has developed some insight into an aspect of the Self, although this approach could entirely miss the point that the lucid-dream is a phenomenon in its own right. Evans & Newmans' computer theory of dreams cannot explain any volitional control of dreams. They are supposed to be the passively observed result of updating processes in the brain. Similarly, Jouvet's view that PGO spikes cause cortical stimulation, so producing dreams, cannot cope with an autonomous dream. Likewise, Hartmann's circuit-testing and shunting-out theory would appear to require revision. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   V.6 EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS Green's examples of lucid-dreams, since they cover apparent waking phenomena, point to spontaneous imagery rather than REM-state dreams. Surely she is defining the term too broadly. Those alleged lucid-dreams occurring via 'daylight impressions' and 'hypnosis', recorded by her, are not in states of sleep and the term lucid-dream should therefore not be applied to them. What is required is an electro-physiological sleep study using lucid-dream Subjects to ascertain in which sleep stage these phenomena occur. The enormous problem here though, is if they do occur in sleep, how can the Subject indicate when such a dram is experienced ? A person might wake and pronounce having just had a lucid-dream, but that does not scientific proof that the event was really recent. The Subject may have confused REM periods for instance, and not in fact woken in the lucid-dream REMP. Imagery characteristics should also be surveyed since if the phenomenon is a product of visual imagery, scores on that dimension should correlate with the frequency of lucid-dreams. Green considered the experimental prospects concerning lucid-dreams. She stated that on the reported evidence it would be expected that : Lucid-dreams should occur in the latter part of the night. Presumably, they should be associated with REM sleep. She stresses the importance of determining how the EEG of lucid-dreams relates to ordinary dreams. Tart (1965) wondered whether a 2-way communication system between Subject and Experimenter could be developed so that instructions and reports could be signalled. He pointed out that such a step would change the status of the dream from a subjective event reported retrospectively, to a more immediate sort of behaviour. Tart asked whether Subjects could incorporate certain stimuli so that these could act as signals to direct the Subject to perform specific activities in the dream. He believed that simple motor acts, such as raising a finger, could be performed and he considered the possibility of subjects automatic writing or sleep-talking. Green also suggested that Subjects might be trained to make motor responses. The enormous hurdle though is the phenomenon of muscular atonia in sleep (Page 25). Even if it were possible to make some form of muscular response on the realisation of lucidity, say be a conditioned twitch, that is not the same as signalling meaningful information spontaneously. Green asks whether a Subject in a lucid-dream is more accessible to external stimulation than I ordinary dreams - presumably as this might decide the 'depth' of sleep. A method of continual training of Subjects to have lucid-dreams when falling asleep is recommended by her - however, as she states elsewhere, that is not the typical lucid-dream. Van Eeden, for instance, who recorded over 300 lucid dreams, found they occurred 'always' between 5 and 6 a.m. Green is obviously aware of the problem of identification of the point of lucidity in a nocturnal dream, hence her advocacy of the falling-asleep type of alleged lucid-dream where the start is certainly known. A further topic mentioned by Green is the possibility of Subjects attempting ESP experimentation within the altered state of consciousness of the lucid-dream. Certainly, the fact that the Subject knows what the situation is, enables such a study to be performed. Clearly, though, the overwhelming problem is that of signalling by the Subject. Is such a technique feasible ? Chapter II gives the answer to that question. CHAPTER V LUCID DREAMS   A NOTE ON DEMAND CHARACTERISTICS In a paper, important concerning any research with human Subjects, Orne (1962) pointed out that the Subject's eagerness to please the Experimenter can cause bias in the results. Thus, 'demand characteristics' can operate in the experimental setting. The Subject cannot be regarded as a 'passive responder' to stimuli. He or she has motivations concerning the experiment and an idea of what the outcome should be. Consciously or unconsciously, the Subject may actively perform in a way to validate the experimental hypothesis. The psychological experiment is then a form of social interaction. In 'hypnosis' work, for instance, simulating control Subjects (who simply pretended to be 'hypnotised') have been found to behave with great effectiveness, deceiving well trained 'hypnotists' (Barber, 1969). In sleep and dream research, both Experimenter and Subject invest much time and often there is great inconvenience, hence it is to be expected that demand characteristics might affect the experimental results. This factor would have to be considered in planning the experiments. In any discussion on dreams it is necessary to consider the philosophical aspects of the phenomenon - this will be attempted in the next Chapter.